FR – ONE-SHARK project

2021-2027
Funding: The Prefecture and Collectivity of Saint-Barthélemy and Saint Martin

Securing the Caribbean’s blue economies through shark risk management

The ONE-SHARK project aims to manage and minimise the shark risk by developing a network of stakeholders whose synergistic actions will make it possible to

i) raising user awareness, ii) training professionals, while iii) monitoring potentially dangerous shark populations, iv) improving scientific knowledge and v) taking concerted action throughout the Caribbean.

1. Rationale: inventing eco-responsible shark risk management

PUTTING AN END TO THE INEPTITUDE OF REGULATORY FISHERIES

Although very rare, with an average of <10 human deaths per year, shark bites generate strong emotional reactions among the public that drive decision-makers to implement reactive risk management strategies (Meeuwig and Fereira, 2014). Mass shark culling campaigns, such as those recently implemented in Australia, Reunion Island or New Caledonia, have been the most common management response to fatal shark bites on humans. Not only do these campaigns have detrimental effects on the status of already threatened species, but their effectiveness is questionable (Ferretti et al., 2015). The few analyses suggesting that culling campaigns improve human safety (e.g. Dudley 1997, Cliff and Dudley 2011) lack a ‘control’ component to serve as a reference; they describe trends that may simply reflect the natural rarity and stochasticity of fatal bites on humans, without showing the real effectiveness of these non-selective and random removals. Analyses of other culling campaigns show that they do not reduce shark bites. One of the most comprehensive studies of a shark control programme shows how 4,668 sharks (including 554 tiger sharks Galeocerdo cuvier considered to be the species responsible for fatal bites on surfers) were killed in Hawaii between 1959 and 1976, with “no measurable effect on the mortality rate of surfers in Hawaiian waters” (Wetherbee et al., 1994). In this study, an average rate of 0.6 fatal attacks per year was recorded before and during the cull, increasing to 1.4 per year in the years following the programme. As a contemporary example, on the island of La Réunion, which recorded 5 fatal bites between 2010 and 2013, a culling campaign began in 2014 and failed to prevent a further 6 fatal bites between 2014 and 2019. This campaign, which is still underway around the island, has led to the elimination of more than 700 sharks to date, including the bulldog sharks Carcharhinus leucas responsible for the fatal bites, but above all tiger sharks, which are rarely, if ever, incriminated in these bites (on Reunion Island).

Cliff, G., & Dudley, S. F. (2011). Reducing the environmental impact of shark-control programs: a case study from KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Marine and Freshwater Research, 62(6), 700-709.

Dudley, S. F. J. (1997). A comparison of the shark control programs of New South Wales and Queensland (Australia) and KwaZulu-Natal (South Africa). Ocean & coastal management, 34(1), 1-27.

Ferretti, F., Jorgensen, S., Chapple, T. K., De Leo, G., & Micheli, F. (2015). Reconciling predator conservation with public safety. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 13(8), 412-417.

Meeuwig, J. J., & Ferreira, L. C. (2014). Moving beyond lethal programs for shark hazard mitigation. Animal Conservation, 17(4), 297-298..

Wetherbee, B. M., Lowe, C. G., & Crow, G. L. (1994). A review of shark control in Hawaii with recommendations for future research, Pacific Science.

Carcasses of sharks victims of the regulation fisheries implemented in Nouméa (New Caledonia) and abandoned in a public dump.

2. The “problem individuals” hypothesis

Reconciling man and shark

The aim of indiscriminate fishing campaigns is to reduce the number of sharks in order to reduce the risk of human bites. As such, they are based on the “density-dependency” hypothesis of risk (the more sharks there are, the higher the risk). This hypothesis has never been validated, however, and the results mentioned above suggest that it is false. Recently, another hypothesis inspired by the understanding of the risk posed to humans by terrestrial predators (such as lions, tigers or bears, etc.) (Swan et al. 2017), has been scientifically validated and is based on the concept of the “problem individual” (PI) (Clua and Linnell 2018).
This hypothesis suggests that the density of sharks has only a very secondary influence on the risk of a shark’s predatory bite on man, which essentially depends on the presence, within a given population, of one or more (but very limited numbers) of animals that have developed atypical behaviour compared with almost all of their congeners. While the latter will never consider humans as potential prey, potential PIs have personality traits (notably boldness and risk-taking) that lead them to attack a human. In other words, shark risk is more behavioural than ecological, which explains why the same species of shark may or may not be dangerous to humans in different parts of the world, depending on the presence of PIs. In addition to its ability to explain the cognitive mechanisms that generate, or rather those that most often prevent, predatory bites on humans by sharks, this hypothesis explains why, as a general rule, regulatory fisheries fail, due to their lack of selectivity, in their objective of reducing the risk of bites by being unable, except in special cases and purely by coincidence, to remove the biting shark or sharks from the ecosystem. In addition, the problem individual hypothesis suggests that a shark that has already bitten for predatory purposes has a high probability of doing so again, not because it has developed a taste for humans, but because a first ‘success’ without being defended by its initial prey reinforces its choice of this new prey (humans). The presence of these problem individuals, which are very difficult to detect, is currently being demonstrated, particularly in the tiger shark based on an example from Cocos Island (Clua 2018) and potentially in the oceanic shark (Carcharhinus longimanus) in the Red Sea (Clua et al. in prep).

Clua, E. E., & Linnell, J. D. (2018). Individual shark profiling: An innovative and environmentally responsible approach for selectively managing human fatalities. Conservation Letters, 12(2), e12612.

Clua, E. (2018) Gestión del riesgo de comportamiento agresivo de los tiburones tigre Galeocerdo cuvier (rcat) hacia los buceadores recreativos del Parque Nacional Isla del Coco (PNIC – Costa Rica). Informe tecnico. CRIOBE USR3278 CNRS-EPHE-UPVD. POLYNESIE FRANCAISE. RA277. 61 pp.

Swan, G. J., Redpath, S. M., Bearhop, S., & McDonald, R. A. (2017). Ecology of problem individuals and the efficacy of selective wildlife management. Trends in ecology & evolution, 32(7), 518-530.

3. THE CASE OF THE TIGER SHARK

Migratory Species hard to track

A migratory species that is difficult to track…aThree species of shark (the white shark Carcharodon carcharias, the tiger shark and the bulldog shark) are collectively responsible for most of the serious and fatal shark bite incidents in the world. The first, and to a lesser extent the second, are considered to be highly migratory (Bonfil et al. 2005; Meyer et al., 2009), an ecological trait that could partly explain why indiscriminate mass culling campaigns, which are based on the density-dependency hypothesis, often fail because they do not remove the few animals in the population that pose a potential threat to humans. Biting individuals have a strong tendency to leave the area in question immediately after their predation, which normally generates a heightened mistrust of the prey in question (Heithaus and Dill 2002); this probably does not prevent them from returning to the same area several months later. In this respect, risk management with a species such as the bulldog shark, considered to be much more sedentary, appears easier. Nevertheless, the management of migratory PI such as the white or tiger shark, which are more mobile, remains possible by combining a regional and long-term approach, based on several study sites exchanging information (Clua et al. 2020). Technically, this approach is based on PROGENIR, or PROfilage GENétique Individuel des Requins (see diagram below).

Bonfil, R., Meÿer, M., Scholl, M. C., Johnson, R., O’Brien, S., Oosthuizen, H., … & Paterson, M. (2005). Transoceanic migration, spatial dynamics, and population linkages of white sharks. Science, 310(5745), 100-103.

Clua, E. E., Linnell, J. D., Planes, S., & Meyer, C. G. (2020). Selective removal of problem individuals as an environmentally responsible approach for managing shark bites on humans. Ocean & Coastal Management, 194, 105266.

Heithaus, M. R., & Dill, L. M. (2002). Food availability and tiger shark predation risk influence bottlenose dolphin habitat use. Ecology, 83(2), 480-491.

Meyer, C. G., Clark, T. B., Papastamatiou, Y. P., Whitney, N. M., & Holland, K. N. (2009). Long-term movement patterns of tiger sharks Galeocerdo cuvier in Hawaii. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 381, 223-235.

4. THE ONE-SHARK PROJECT

Understanding, managing and communicating about shark risk

Faced with the risk posed by the presence of large, mobile sharks capable of attacking human users of the sea, the ONE-SHARK project aims to secure the tourist economies of the islands in the area concerned by creating and networking large shark monitoring sites that would, if necessary, enable the selective elimination of animals proven to be responsible for bites on humans. The project is being developed using the island of Saint-Martin as a technical test site.

Prof. E. CLUA – Project leader and scientific advisor to the GIP

5. GIP ONE-SHARK

Creating a virtuous public-private dynamic

Prefect Berton (second from left), chairing the first meeting of the GIP in June 2023, with on his right B. Bartoli, President of the SXM Medical Association; on his left: H. Bidenbach (Director of the GIP) and K. Miksa (Head of the Saint-Bartélemy and Saint-Martin DEAL unit).

The founding members of One Shark are the Prefecture of Saint-Barthélemy and Saint-Martin, the Ordre des Médecins de Saint-Martin, the association for the management of the Réserve Naturelle de Saint-Martin, the association of seafaring professions (METIMER) and the association of fishermen of Saint Martin (Swali-Fishermen). Together, they form a diverse coalition committed to preserving the region’s blue economy, illustrating the local commitment to this innovative project for the responsible management of shark risk.

The first task is to create a synergy between local public and private players, thereby promoting the mobilisation of the technical and scientific skills that are essential to the planning and assessment of the actions to be taken.

The direct aim of these actions is to increase scientific knowledge of tiger sharks, which will enable training and communication programmes to be optimised with a view to guaranteeing the safety of sea users. Training will focus in particular on sea tourism professionals and the general public, thus ensuring widespread awareness.

Communication activities aim to provide information on shark risk management measures while shedding light on the ecology of tiger sharks, thereby helping to reassure and highlight the biological heritage of Saint-Martin.

H. Bidenbach

Head of ONE-SHARK and Director of the GIP

6. Public information

PROVIDING INFORMATION TO CHANGE PEOPLE’S PERCEPTION OF RISK

One of GIP One Shark’s flagship initiatives is to inform the general public about the ecology of tiger sharks around Saint-Martin, using information panels (see opposite), presentations in schools and special events.

The idea is to make the public and users of the sea aware of the presence of this animal, without creating a psychosis. Few people are aware that this species is present in the waters of Saint-Martin, but its natural caution towards man means that it is almost never seen. This information could be interpreted negatively as a sign of permanent danger, but on the contrary, the absence of any incident for decades, despite the omnipresence of this animal, proves that there is virtually no likelihood of it attacking humans.

7. Professional training

BETTER COMMUNICATION, BETTER ANTICIPATION, BETTER ACTION IN THE FACE OF SHARK RISK

The training provided by the Groupement d’Intérêt Public (GIP) One Shark to tourism professionals is divided into two essential phases, with the aim of enhancing their understanding and skills in managing the risk of sharks.

The essential phase of the training is provided by health professionals specialising in emergency situations. Participants are trained in the use of first aid kits specific to shark bites. They acquire the skills needed to act effectively in the event of an incident, providing immediate and appropriate medical assistance to a person following a shark bite.

Distribution to professionals of first aid kits adapted to shark risk issues

First aid kits adapted to shark risk issues

First training session in Saint-Martin

The training is aimed primarily at eco-tourism operators and restaurateurs who operate near beaches or at sea. Future sessions are planned on the islands of Saint Martin and Saint Barthélemy, with the aim of enabling the entire tourism sector to better inform and protect users of the sea.

8. Technical monitoring of animals

Discretion, perseverance and long-term efficiency

The risk management strategy (Clua et al. 2020) follows two parallel lines of action based firstly on (1) the organisation of experimental sites in order to implement, on a routine basis, individual photo-identification of the animals, precise body measurements via photogrammetry (using lasers) and DNA sampling (via biopsies). These sites, which will be kept active throughout the year, will gradually build up a database of as many sedentary and transient sharks as possible in the area, so that their DNA profile can be determined (via fingerprinting) and they can be visually re-identified if necessary. A second approach (2) consists, in the event of a human bite, of implementing measures in the field (first aid on the beaches, for example) to take samples as early as possible from the wounds of victims, whether deceased or not, in order to collect DNA from the biting shark (swabbing the lips of the wound). In the absence of, or in addition to, these early samples, the aim would also be to develop improved forensic medicine that would include the collection of DNA from shark bites in its protocols. This DNA would make it possible to identify an individual within a given species (bite-printing on nuclear transfer DNA) and thus isolate the genetic profile of the attacking shark. By cross-referencing the information (3) concerning this genetic profile obtained from forensic medicine with that obtained from the local experimental site (or from existing sites on a regional scale in order to better manage migratory species), it would then be possible to identify the attacking shark visually (and/or using electronic markers). Depending on its accessibility on an experimental site and after verification of its identity, the problem individual (PI) could be surgically removed from the ecosystem (4): either fished to be moved, or euthanised, without interfering with its congeners. This operation could be carried out immediately after the bite if the information is available and the shark located, or several months later, at the same site or another experimental site belonging to a network exchanging information on sharks, particularly on a regional scale.

Clua, E. E., Linnell, J. D., Planes, S., & Meyer, C. G. (2020). Selective removal of problem individuals as an environmentally responsible approach for managing shark bites on humans. Ocean & Coastal Management, 194, 105266.

9. IMPROVING SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE

BETTER KNOWLEDGE FOR BETTER UNDERSTANDING AND BETTER MANAGEMENT OF SHARK RISK

The study of the tiger shark in its natural environment aims to answer two questions: i) how many animals make up the tiger shark population in the waters of Saint-Martin? And ii) When a tiger shark leaves the waters of Saint-Martin, how long does it take on average before returning?
To answer the first question, the ONE-SHARK project is using genetic sampling combined with (non-lethal) fishing to potentially recapture sharks. Genetic samples taken from animals that are fished and then released make it possible to assess the genetic diversity within the population concerned, in other words to calculate the approximate number of males and females that the species needs to achieve such diversity in this part of the world. This information is combined with recaptures (real by fishing or simply visual by diving) to get a better idea of the size of the population.
To answer the second question, the ONE-SHARK project uses satellite telemetry. When the animals are captured, ‘archive’ tags are placed on their backs and kept there for several months before being released. The released tags then transmit data via satellites, enabling the animal’s route to be reconstructed and its movements to be understood.
This information on the number of sharks and their movements is vital for a better understanding of the risk.

Non-lethal capture of a tiger shark in the waters off Saint-Martin for DNA sampling and tagging

Capture non létale d’un requin tigre dans les eaux de Saint-Martin permettant de lui prélever de l’Adn et lui apposer une balise

10. REGIONAL COOPERATION

CHANGING SCALE TO IMPROVE EFFICIENCY IN THE LONG TERM

Given the migratory nature of the species concerned (the tiger), the One Shark project is intended to work on a regional scale to increase its effectiveness.

A proposal has been made to Saint Kitts, Saint Eustatius, Saba, Sint Maarten, Saint Martin, Saint Barth and Anguilla to create a regional observation network that will increase the number of sites providing access to animals to improve the reference base (genetic and visual) and the recapture of potential problem animals.

In this context, the CARIB-Vet network, which has already played a key role in demonstrating that the shark that bit Saint-Martin in 2020 was the same one that bit Saint-Kitts in 2021, will continue to play a driving role. In terms of funding for this regional initiative, the project aims to mobilise INTERREG funds.

Preparatory mission to Saint Kitts in April 2022 for the regional cooperation initiative led by E. Clua, ONE-SHARK Project Manager (centre), accompanied by Mark Freeman, Professor at Ross University (left) and Mark Williams, Director of Fisheries in Saint Kitts (right), accompanied by two local fishermen involved in catching sharks.

Actualités / Blog

MONITORING THE ONE SHARK PROJECT

First aid training for professionals on Saint Martin (March 2023)

In March 2023, the first One Shark training course, focusing on the ecology of tiger sharks and the first steps to take in the event of a bite, was conducted in partnership with Dr Bartoli and Dr Asencio at the CCISM headquarters in Saint-Martin. The event was well attended by the island's nautical tourism industry, with 37 people taking part. The enthusiasm of the participants was palpable, and they unanimously expressed their desire to see further training sessions organised in the near future. This initiative proved to be a promising success for One Shark, demonstrating the importance of raising awareness and being prepared for the risk of sharks.

First joint Tiger shark tagging mission with SINT-MARTEEN (May 2023)

The scientific tagging campaign for the One Shark SXM project, carried out between 10 and 17 May 2023, aimed at developing the risk management aspects and studying the movements of tiger sharks, led to an unprecedented collective effort. Collaboration was observed between French (EPHE) and Dutch (The Nature Foundation St.Maarten & Sxm Divers) environmental conservation institutions. The logistical support of private players (YachtAid Global & Ocean Blue Tree) helped to catalyse the implementation of this joint campaign by the two countries administering the island of Saint-Martin. The campaign enabled genetic samples to be taken and tiger sharks to be visually identified, in order to complete the database for monitoring the population around the island of Saint Martin.